The beginnings of digital photography

The first digital camera was built in 1975 by the Eastman Kodak company. The camera weighed 3.6 kg and recorded black and white images, which were saved onto a cassette tape. The first image made with the device had a resolution of 10,000 pixels and took 23 seconds to record. The experimental camera was never marketed.

Consumer digital cameras became generally available in the 1990s. The first true digital camera that recorded images as a computerised file was the Dycam Model 1. It used an image sensor and stored images digitally, which were imported to a computer using special software.

The Dycam Model 1 had a resolution of 320 x 240 pixels and produced only black and white images. It was able to store around 30 photos on its internal memory and pictures had to be transferred to a computer soon after they were taken, as they disappeared if the camera battery died before they were downloaded. The camera had one button; the shutter release to take pictures. There was no power button and, although it had an inbuilt flash, to activate and deactivate it users needed to connect the camera to the computer. The Dycam Model 1 sold for $995, a considerable sum of money at the time.

The first digital single-lens reflex camera was Kodak’s DCS 100, which was released in 1991. It consisted of a Nikon body with digital sensors instead of the traditional film. The camera was connected to a separate digital storage unit, which the photographers carried on a shoulder strap. The DCS 100 cost $20,000 and was aimed at professional photojournalists.

Digital colour photography became affordable in 1994, when Apple released the Apple QuickTake 100. It looked like a pair of binoculars, and it was the first camera that could be connected to a computer with a USB, although it was only compatible with a Mac. The camera could store eight images at maximum resolution, but it had no preview screen and photos had to be downloaded to be seen. There was also no way to delete photos, although there was a “trash” button that erased all the images on the camera. The QuickTake was marketed for three years but it wasn’t very popular and so was discontinued in 1997.

During the 1990s, digital camera design changed rapidly. Image quality and data storage improved steadily and prices became more accessible. In 1995 Casio released the Casio QV-10, the first camera with an LCD screen. This made it possible for people to preview and delete photos instantly. This was a major breakthrough and, along with cheaper prices, helped to popularise digital photography.

Another major development took place in 2000 when the Japanese Sharp Corporation put the first camera phone on the market. It had a simple inbuilt camera with a resolution of 0.1 megapixels, a fixed-focus lens and small image sensors, which meant it didn’t function well in poor light conditions. The big advantage of the Sharp J-SH04 was that it allowed users to send photos directly from the phone, without the need to download them to a computer. The camera sold only in Japan and cost $500.

But it wasn’t until 2007, with the arrival of the iPhone, that the idea of using a smartphone as a camera became widespread. By 2017 almost 2.4 billion smartphones had been sold worldwide, most of them with an inbuilt camera. One of the consequences of their rising popularity was that the sales of compact digital cameras started to drop dramatically. The reason was not that people had stopped taking pictures, but that many were using their camera phones instead. For millions of people their smartphone is now their only camera and the main reason for this is convenience: users always have their smartphone with them, it has an excellent display unit and it’s always connected so people can share their pictures instantly on social media.

Digital photography has been with us for nearly 40 years and over time has changed how we take photos. But the arrival of the camera phone has directly affected our lives in a number of ways: we are all photographers now, and together we produce around 1.2 trillion photos a year. Every aspect of our daily lives can be easily documented and shared, driving the enormous growth of social media like Flickr, Facebook or Instagram, and news coverage has been transformed as regular citizens using smartphones record natural disasters, wars or street crimes. Time will tell if these changes are for better or for worse.

Animal laughter

Recent studies using chimpanzees and rats could lead to clues to our evolutionary past and also to our mental health.

At this point in time, it is known that humans are not the only mammals capable of laughter. Signs of giggling and laughing have been found in other mammals, such as apes and rats. Studies carried out in labs at the Northwestern University research centre were primarily begun to develop new medication alternatives for the treatment of depression; however, in the process, research has produced evidence that humour isn’t exclusive to humans.

It has been observed that during play activity, apes make distinctive panting sounds that could well have evolved into laughter in humans. This panting sound is believed to be a message, a way of demonstrating trust, of signalling play as a safe activity and that no aggression is intended. Similar research at the University of Portsmouth in the UK also produced recordings of tickle-induced panting from chimps, bonobos, orangutans and gorillas. The closest relatives to humans, chimps, were found to make laughter sounds most similar to that of humans.

Interestingly, this recent research not only shows that non-human primates exhibit "tickle-induced vocalizations", but also that they have a sense of humour. A search on YouTube quickly brings up numerous videos of animals experiencing happy moments; either playing practical jokes on others or apparently appreciating jokes or tricks. In one example, a video posted in 2015, a young orangutan at Barcelona Zoo is seen responding to a magic trick – involving a plastic cup and a cherry that seems to disappear – by rolling over in a display of laughter or disbelief. This display is very similar to how a human would respond to a simple magic trick such as this. Penny Patterson, president of the California-based Gorilla Foundation made the observation that Koko, a western lowland gorilla famous for her ability to use sign language, finds her clumsiness funny. Koko makes laughing noises if Penny drops something or slips over.

So, perhaps the idea that animals appreciate comedy is not so far-fetched. Scientists, like Marc Bekoff at the University of Colorado, are making other ground-breaking discoveries about animal behaviour as well. One such finding is that dogs understand fairness, spiders experience mood changes and that bees can be trained to be pessimistic. After all, Charles Darwin argued that the difference between human and animal intelligence is a matter of degree, not kind. So, if we humans have a sense of humour, then other animals could also share this capability.

This idea inspired research in the late 1990s, when the discovery was made at the Bowling Green State University in Ohio that rats made a unique ultrasonic chirping noise when they chased each other and engaged in play fighting. The sound rats make when tickled is perhaps best described as “positive affect”, rather than laughter. This finding correlated with other observations of primate play. In rats, it was found that the same chirping noise they make when playing could be induced by tickling. What’s more, it appeared that, when tickled, the rats followed the researchers’ fingers as if asking to be tickled more.

Whether this reaction is called laughter or not, researchers believe that it signals that the rats are experiencing what could be described as happiness. They also believe that brain circuits responsible for laughter in rats can be used to study emotions in other mammal brains, including human emotion. More importantly, inducing this response could be an extremely useful tool to use in the development of new antidepressant medications to see if they also make the rats “laugh” or chirp happily. Eventually, this research with rats could lead to important new developments in the development of antidepressant medications for humans.

London shopping spots

Looking for interesting market and shop options in London? Check out this month’s favourites! 

A)  Camden Passage, Islington
Camden Passage is a cobblestone street in the borough of Islington, North London.  On market days it is busy with stalls selling vintage clothes, antiques and bric-a-brac, and retro and modern objects for the home.

Ever since the 1950s, Camden Passage has been one of London’s main locations for antiques. Check out some of the world-famous shops specialising in antique silver, contemporary and vintage fashion, jewellery or fine antique furniture.  When you need a break from shopping, relax in one of the many cafes or treat yourself to a meal in one of the excellent local restaurants.

The main market days are Wednesday, Friday, Saturday and Sunday. Stalls are open from around 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. on Wednesdays and Saturdays. On Friday and Sunday, stalls open at 10:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m. respectively. Shops and cafes are generally open every day of the week.

B)  Neal’s Yard
Neal’s Yard is hidden away in a small alley in London’s Covent Garden.  Formerly a warehouse for the Covent Garden fruit and vegetable market, Neal’s Yard is a brightly painted, tranquil courtyard with a number of specialty shops and cafes, including the popular Wild Food Café.  Don’t miss Neal’s Yard Dairy with its large range of British cheeses and Neal’s Yard Remedies for natural health and beauty products.

Neal’s Yard has been around since 1976, when alternative lifestyle activist Nicholas Saunders first set up a wholefood shop here. The store was an immediate success and the business went from strength to strength, turning into the lively alternative place it is today. If you’re in the area pop in and have a look, or linger for a while over a cup of herbal tea or a glass of wine and soak up the atmosphere.

Enter from either Monmouth Street or Shorts Gardens – you’ll have to look carefully as the entrance is narrow and easy to miss!

C)  Gabriel’s Wharf
This artistic enclave on the South Bank of the Thames is only a short walk from the London Television Centre, but it feels miles away from the hustle and bustle of tourist London.  It offers a good mix of boutiques, designer shops and galleries. Have a wander and you’ll be able to see people creating fashion, ceramics, art and jewellery. Check out the fair trade home furnishings imported from India at Ganesha, beautiful handcrafted jewellery at Jianhui or visit the Southbank Printmakers cooperative for affordable, quality original prints.

Gabriel’s Wharf, originally an industrial area, was redeveloped in 1988. On a sunny day it’s a great place to relax in one of the outdoor cafes and enjoy the fabulous views of the Thames.

D)  Foyles
One of London’s most iconic bookshops, Foyles has been selling books since the beginning of the twentieth century. Situated in Charing Cross Road, this enormous store is a paradise for book lovers with its four miles of shelves and 200,000 titles.  Aside from books both new and secondhand, Foyles has plenty of other attractions such as The Café on the top floor, which offers coffee, tea and cakes, as well as delicious snacks.  On the same floor there is The Gallery at Foyles, offering a programme of exhibitions, literary events - including talks and readings from high-profile authors, concerts and activities for children.

Foyles was founded in 1903 by two brothers as a secondhand bookshop where they sold their unused textbooks after failing the entrance exam for the civil service. Their enterprise was a success and in 1906 they opened what was at the time London’s biggest educational bookstore in Charing Cross Road. In 2014 Foyles moved to its present site, next door to the original building it occupied for over a century.

Foyles is at 107 Charing Cross Road and opens every day from 9:30 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. except Sundays, when it opens from 11:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.

E)  Walthamstow Market
A treat for open-air market lovers in East London!  About 1 kilometre in length, it is reputedly the longest street market in Europe, with over 500 stalls selling mostly fresh produce, including Asian and Caribbean products. Other stalls sell flowers, fabrics, household goods and affordable clothing.

The market dates from 1885 and is held on the High Street, Walthamstow. The High Street boasts an array of cafes and restaurants that sell everything from typical English dishes like pie and mash or jellied eels to Caribbean saltfish patties, curry goat dumplings and plantain.

The market is open from Tuesday to Saturday from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. , and the farmers’ market on Sundays from 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.  The nearest underground station is Walthamstow Central.